Mezirow is one of the early, and leading, developers of transformational learning theory. In Mezirow’s presentation of his theory, he articulates an approach that closely resembles the organisational adaptive management cycle, with processes of personal reflection, validation through discourse, experience through action, and assessment or evaluation. While transformative learning theory has been developed largely in the adult education literature, the broader social links are evident through the critical role of discourse in the learning experience. Discourse requires particular conditions to exist for it to be effective, and these conditions also enable learning. Full information, lack of coercion, openness, active listening are examples of some of these requirements. Altering frames of reference by challenging underlying assumptions is central to the transformational learning theory. Entrenched frames of reference can lead to an automatic rejection of ideas, information or knowledge that fails to meet preconceptions of what is considered valid. Frames of reference may be perceived as ‘rational’ (i.e. mental/cognitive), but according to Mezirow, frames of reference also include conative (i.e. desire, impulse) and emotional elements. Therefore, frames of reference are as much about beliefs as they are about facts. An important lesson for adaptive learning is that social and cultural forces (at multiple scales) can entrench maladaptive frames of reference, individually and collectively. The challenge, therefore, is to encourage processes that test established behaviours and norms, while maintaining stability within the larger system.